Bilingüismo
BILINGUAL PROGRAMMS IN USA
Transitional Bilingual Education
Transitional bilingual education provides content area support in the native language while teaching the student English. Initially, the learner is taught content classes in the native language, is taught English as a Second Language, and may also take music, P.E., art, and similar classes in English, partly because these classes require less language proficiency and also because it is important that the learner know English speaking students (for language and social development).
The transitional model serves as a bridge for students to move from their native language to English. Federal guidelines now suggest that 3 years is the target amount of time for learners to receive L1 support, in spite of studies showing that 5-7 years is a more realistic time frame for learners to reach levels comparable to their native English speaking peers (See Collier, 1989; Krashen et al., 1982).
The goals of transitional bilingual education are assimilationist, and the outcome is generally subtractive bilingualism. Still, it is hoped that these programs will provide the content area support which will enable these students to remain in school. These programs are often found in communities with significant populations of non-native English speakers.
ESL Pullout:
In this model, students are "pulled out" of some other classes in order to receive an English as a second language class. They are mainstreamed into other classes. ESL Pullout is also assimilationist in its goals, and subtractive bilingualism is the usual outcome. Students in this model may receive between twenty minutes or several hours per day (intensive) but students may still fall behind in content areas as they struggle to learn English.
ESL pullout is commonly found in areas with different language backgrounds, making it difficult to find enough bilingual teachers and aides, and in areas where financial resources limited.
The issue of which class to release children from should be thoughtfully considered; generally, it makes sense to release children from English Language Arts rather than from content classes or those in which they can form friendships with native speakers of English, such as P.E., music, or art.
Maintenance Programs:
In maintenance programs, the learners are transitioned into English content classes, and are given support in their first language, as in transitional programs. However, they also receive language arts in their native language, enabling them to become literate in that language, and they continue to receive content area classes in their first language as well, so that they become literate in both languages. The goal of maintenance bilingual programs is to promote bilingualism and biliteracy. Maintenance programs exist where there are sufficiently large numbers of students of one language background to make it possible to hire bilingual teachers and where there is interest and support in the community for having a bilingually educated population.
Enrichment Bilingual Education:
Enrichment bilingual education focuses on teaching students academic proficiency through the medium of a second language, whereupon literacy in the second language can be attained. The goal of enrichment programs, just like maintenance programs, is bilingualism and biliteracy for individual students and also maintenance of the minority language in the community. The goals are more than linguistic, they aim for cultural pluralism and autonomy of cultural groups.
Heritage Program:
Heritage model fits roughly between, and overlaps, both maintenance and enrichment. Its distinguishing feature is the program aim, which is generally a recovery of lost or endangered languages. The aim is rejuvenation of an indigenous language, and usually bilingualism and biliteracy, although the heritage language can take priority.
Late-Exit or Developmental Bilingual Education:
The education is given in the child's native language for an extended duration, accompanied by education in English. The goal is to develop literacy in the child's native language first, and afterwards transfer these skills to the second language.
Submersion:
The submersion model, sometimes mistakenly identified as the immersion model in the U.S., mainstreams non-native English speaking students into regular English-speaking classrooms.
The goals of this model are assimilationist; that is, the goal is to have the non-native speaker learn English and assimilate to North American society. Since the first language is not supported, it is frequently lost and so the model is also considered subtractive. According to Cummins (1981), learners who receive neither L1 support nor ESL have a difficult time succeeding in school. Such students frequently feel marginalized and drop out before finishing high school. (Roberts, 1995, p. 372)
Submersion is not a legal option for schools with non-native English speakers; however, oversight and enforcement are lax, and many smaller schools with low populations of NNS students are simply unaware that they are required to provide some of these services that students are entitled to.
